Current Status
Biological status
Heathland vegetation occurs widely on mineral soils and thin peats (<0.5 m deep) throughout the uplands and moorlands of the UK. It is characterised by the presence of dwarf shrubs at a cover of at least 25%. Blanket bog vegetation may also contain substantial amounts of dwarf shrubs, but is distinguished from heathland by its occurrence on deep peat (>0.5 m).
For the purposes of this plan upland heathland is defined as lying below the alpine or montane zone (at about 600-750 m) and usually above the upper edge of enclosed agricultural land (generally at around 250-400 m, but descending to near sea-level in northern Scotland).
Lowland heathland occurs below the upper limit of agricultural enclosure and supports a range of birds, reptiles and invertebrates not found on upland heath; this habitat is covered by a separate habitat action plan. Montane heaths, restricted to high-altitude mountain summits and ridges, are also excluded from the upland heathland plan. Blanket bog and other mires, grassland, bracken, scrub, trees and woodland, freshwater and rock habitats frequently form intimate mosaics with heathland vegetation in upland situations. This plan recognises the importance of this habitat mosaic. Habitat action plans have been produced for some elements of this complex, for example, blanket bog and upland calcareous grassland.
Upland heath in 'favourable condition' is typically dominated by a range of dwarf shrubs such as heather
Calluna vulgaris, bilberry
Vaccinium myrtillus, crowberry
Empetrum nigrum, bell heather
Erica cinerea and, in the south and west, western gorse
Ulex gallii. In northern areas juniper
Juniperus communis is occasionally seen above a heath understorey. Wet heath is most commonly found in the wetter north and west and, in 'favourable condition', should be dominated by mixtures of cross-leaved heath
Erica tetralix, deer grass
Scirpus cespitosus, heather and purple moor-grass
Molinia caerulea, over an understorey of mosses often including carpets of
Sphagnum species. This habitat is distinct from blanket mire which occurs on deeper peat and which usually contains frequent occurrence of hare's-tail cotton-grass
Eriophorum vaginatum and characteristic mosses. High quality heaths are generally structurally diverse, containing stands of vegetation with heather at different stages of growth. Upland heath in 'favourable condition' also usually includes areas of mature heather.
Upland heathland encompasses a range of National Vegetation Classification (NVC) plant communities. Ulex gallii - Agrostis curtisii (H4) and Calluna vulgaris - U. gallii (H8) are restricted to southern Britain. Calluna - V. myrtillus (H12) is particularly widespread in the east. Calluna - E. cinerea (H10), Calluna - V. myrtillus - Sphagnum capillifolium (H21), and Scirpus cespitosus - E. tetralix (M15) are especially characteristic of western margins. Vaccinium myrtillus - Deschampsia flexuosa (H18) is generally widespread in the uplands but other communities are more local in distribution, notably Calluna - D. flexuosa (H9), Calluna - Arctostaphylos uva-uri (H16)and E. tetralix - Sphagnum compactum (M16). The distribution of these communities is influenced by climate, altitude, aspect, slope, maritime influences and management practices including grazing and burning.
An important assemblage of birds is associated with upland heath, including red grouse
Lagopus lagopus, black grouse
Tetrao tetrix, merlin
Falco columbarius and hen harrier
Circus cyaneus. Some forms of heath also have a significant lower plant interest, including assemblages of rare and local mosses and liverworts that are particularly associated with the wetter western heaths. The invertebrate fauna is especially diverse.
This habitat type is present on an estimated 270,000 ha in England, 80,000 ha in Wales, up to 69,500 ha in Northern Ireland and between 1,700,000 and 2,500,000 ha in Scotland. The total upland heath resource in the UK thus amounts to between 2 and 3 million hectares. Dwarf shrub heaths are recognised as being of international importance because they are largely confined within Europe to the British Isles and the western seaboard of mainland Europe.
There have been considerable losses of heather moorland in recent times. For example, 27% of heather moorland is estimated to have been lost in England and Wales between 1947 and 1980. On the Berwyn mountains in north-east Wales there was a 44% decline in the extent of heather-dominated vegetation between 1946 and 1984, whereas other upland sites in Wales have shown much smaller losses over similar periods. An estimated 18% was lost in Scotland between the 1940s and 1970s and the trend continued throughout the 1980s with a further estimated loss of 5%. Much of this loss is attributed to agricultural land improvements, heavy grazing by sheep (and, in certain areas, red deer and cattle), and afforestation.
It has also been estimated that 440,000 ha of land in the uplands in England and Wales have less than 25% cover of heather (ie grassland containing suppressed dwarf shrubs). There is likely to be further significant loss of heather moorland to acid grassland if current grazing levels and pressures continue. However, the conversion of heathland to acid grassland is not a purely recent phenomenon. On some sites in Wales (and elsewhere in UK) the major decline in heathland cover probably took place in the 19th century or even earlier.
Links with other action plans
Current factors affecting the habitat
Although upland heathland is dependent on management of grazing and burning to prevent succession to scrub or woodland, many upland heaths suffer from overgrazing and environmentally damaging burning regimes. Some of the problems caused by these management practices are described below. As well as direct loss of habitat, many areas of upland heathland are characterised by limited structural diversity with few natural transitions from open heath into scrub and woodland. Current management and other factors are continuing to prevent development of these features in most areas. Undergrazing occurs but is generally only of local significance.
Agriculture is the dominant land use in the uplands. Most of the upland heathland resource falls within the Less Favoured Areas (LFAs). Livestock subsidies have led to a substantial increase in stocking rates (especially of sheep) in many upland areas. For example, the number of ewes in the Severely Disadvantaged Area of England increased by 40% between 1976 and 1993. Within the LFA boundary, financial assistance is available to farmers which is additional to the market support and structural incentives of the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP). Livestock quotas were introduced in 1993 to control the amount of meat production and the overall cost to the CAP, and environmental conditions are now also attached to all the main livestock subsidy schemes, although overgrazing is still a problem and losses of upland heathland habitat continue.
High stocking levels of sheep, and to a lesser extent cattle, lead to heavy grazing of heather and other dwarf shrubs. High numbers of red deer Cervus elaphus are a problem in parts of the Scottish Highlands. Inappropriate methods of supplementary feeding and the absence or minimal use of shepherding also contribute to the problem of overgrazing.
Heavy grazing by sheep, cattle or deer can prevent regeneration by native woodland and scrub, notably along upland heathland margins and streamsides where such habitat additions would be likely to enhance biodiversity value.
Difficulties in negotiating agreements with commoners are hampering take-up of agri-environment schemes on common land.
Conversion to grassland occurs through ploughing, reseeding, liming and fertilisation for agricultural purposes, particularly at lower elevations. Drainage and moorland 'gripping' also reduce the interest of wet heath. These factors have become less significant over the past ten years.
Afforestation (mainly by non-native conifers) leads to direct loss of dwarf-shrub habitat, although temporary and permanent areas of heathland are now being created within some existing forests by restructuring after the first rotation.
Poorly managed muirburn (ie large-scale and too frequent in operation) reduces the habitat quality of upland heath by causing a simplification of structure, loss of lower plant assemblages and erosion of peat.
Encroachment by bracken can lead to a loss of biodiversity; this is a significant problem in some upland areas.
Quarries, windfarms, communication masts, access tracks and certain other planning developments can impact directly on wildlife interest.
Acidification, trophospheric ozone and nitrogen enrichment caused by atmospheric deposition can lead to vegetation changes including a reduction in the lichen and bryophyte interest. Nitrogen deposition can increase the likelihood of insect defoliation of upland heathland.
Climate change could potentially lead to changes in vegetation composition and structure, although any increase in temperature may also be accompanied by possible increases in rainfall and wind speeds. The future position is still unclear but one of the dominant heathland species, heather, does have a relatively wide tolerance of temperature and rainfall, providing the overall climate remains oceanic. It is likely that within the time span of this plan other factors, notably high stocking levels, will have by far the greatest impact on upland heathland vegetation and species.
Localised damage and threats from other forms of land use in the uplands, such as military use and recreation, are a concern.
The interaction of two or more of the factors listed above often greatly increases the overall impact on upland heathland vegetation. For example, poorly managed burning followed by heavy grazing will result in the loss of dwarf shrubs more rapidly than would either factor in isolation. It is possible that grazing pressures interact with pollution to influence vegetation change.
Current Action
Legal status
Large tracts of upland heath are notified as SSSIs/ASSIs, including at least 42,000 ha in England, 34,000 ha in Wales, 7,000 ha in Northern Ireland and 152,000 ha in Scotland. The upland heath habitats listed under Annex 1 of the EC Habitats Directive are Juniperus communis formations on heaths, northern Atlantic wet heaths with Erica tetralix, and dry heaths (all sub-types). The UK Government has put forward areas that it considers qualify as Special Areas of Conservation (SAC) for these habitats. Some areas of upland heath are also classified as Special Protection Areas (SPA) under the EC Birds Directive, including the Bowland Fells and the North Pennines. Upland heathland is also represented within the National Nature Reserve (NNR) network.
Extensive areas of upland are registered as common land in England and Wales. The Department of the Environment, Transport and the Regions (DETR) research project Biological Survey of Common Land in England and Wales will assist in estimating the amount of upland heathland registered as common land. Rights to graze livestock on common land can be held by a number of individuals, and overgrazing is a specific problem on many upland commons in England and Wales. Substantial areas of heathland are also publicly owned or managed, for example by Scottish Office Agriculture, Environment and Fisheries Department (SOAEFD), the National Parks, and Forest Enterprise, and many areas lie in countryside designated as National Park, National Scenic Area (NSA) or Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty (AONB).
The date and conditions under which heather can be burnt are defined by law. Codes of good practice are published by the relevant Agricultural departments. The burning regulations restrict the burning of heather and associated vegetation to specific times of the year.
Management, research and guidance
Most upland heath is privately owned, often as part of large estates which are commonly managed for the grouse-shooting interest. Large areas are also owned or managed by water companies as part of their water catchment plans. A small proportion is owned or managed specifically for nature conservation.
Many of the current projects to develop and improve the management of upland heath are described in the UK Biodiversity Steering Group Report. projects include the SNH Guide to Upland Habitats (1998), SNH research on the impacts of muirburn, a National Trust for Scotland project to develop grazing management plans for upland sites, and a pilot project by the Brecon Beacons National Park and CCW to develop an integrated approach to common land management in upland Wales. In 1999, English Nature will publish the Upland Management Handbook which describes best practice. This is a major publication covering moorland and all other associated habitats and will form the basis for delivering management advice and guidance in England. Much of its content will also be appropriate in certain situations in other countries. DETR have recently produced management guidelines for common land in England and Wales.
The country agencies are currently preparing management plans for SACs and SSSIs/ASSIs, and many upland heath SSSIs/ASSIs receive beneficial management through management agreements. For example, the North Pennines Wildlife Enhancement Scheme in England includes 56 agreements covering 20,842 ha of moorland. Common monitoring standards are also being established to assess the condition of upland heath in the context of 'favourable conservation status'.
Recently, agri-environment and other schemes have been established with the objective of protecting and improving heather moorland habitats through encouraging lower stocking levels and more appropriate management practices. These include Environmentally Sensitive Areas (ESAs) such as the Lake District, North Peak, South West Peak, Exmoor, Dartmoor, the Shropshire Hills, the Central Southern Uplands and Western Southern Uplands of Scotland and the Sperrins in Northern Ireland. Within ESAs 103,057 ha of moorland is under agreement, of which 71,612 ha is dwarf shrub heath. The Countryside Stewardship Scheme in England provides management agreements for the regeneration of grazing-suppressed heather with 13,432 ha of upland heath covered by such agreements. Similarly, the Scottish Countryside Premium Scheme extends to all areas outside ESAs in Scotland and provides incentives for stock reduction and controlled muirburn. In England and Wales, the Moorland Scheme was introduced to enhance the moorland environment by compensating farmers for reducing stock numbers and instituting appropriate management. The take up of the Moorland Scheme has been disappointing (11,000 ha of dwarf shrub heath) and in England an enhanced upland component of the Countryside Stewardship Scheme has been launched by MAFF to offer a more attractive package of incentives. MAFF is also looking at the integration of structural funding and agri-environment funding in two pilot areas in upland England: Forest of Bowland and Bodmin Moor. In some parts of Wales significant areas of upland heathland are subject to Tir Cymen or ESA management assessments. These schemes have been replaced by a new whole-farm agri-environment scheme, Tir Gofal, which includes mandatory prescriptions to maintain existing stands of upland heath, as well as optional prescriptions to encourage heathland expansion and re-creation.
Proposed actions with lead agencies
Policy and legislation
Review and modify livestock support mechanisms in the Less Favourable Areas (LFAs) through further lobbying for reform of Common Agricultural Policy (CAP), to promote sustainable agricultural management of upland heathland. Promote a more integrated approach to environmental, agricultural and socio-economic policy through CAP reform. Continue to reduce overgrazing by implementing the environmental cross-compliance conditions. (ACTION: CCW, DANI, DETR, EHS, NE, MAFF, NAW, SE, SNH)
By 2002 review and consider common land legislation with a view to improving the sympathetic management of upland commons. (ACTION: DETR, DoE(NI), LAs, NAW, NPAs, SE)
By 2004, review, and modify where necessary, muirburn legislation to ensure appropriate management of upland heathland. (ACTION: CCW, DANI, EHS, NE, MAFF, NAW, SE, SNH)
When reviewing management prescriptions in agri-environment schemes and woodland initiatives, consider whether additional measures are needed to maintain and/or improve the condition of upland heathland. Consider extending existing schemes and/or develop new schemes to help achieve the targets outlined in Section 4 of this plan. (ACTION: CCW, DANI, DETR, EHS, NE, FC, MAFF, NAW, SE, SNH)
Protect upland heathland from inappropriate development, such as windfarms and quarrying, including by identification in relevant development plans. (ACTION: DETR, DoE(NI), LAs, NAW, NPAs, SE)
Consider the adequacy of existing planning guidance on the impacts of certain developments on upland heathlands, for example wind farms, and revise if required. (ACTION: CCW, DETR, DoE(NI), EHS, NE, LAs, NAW, NPAs, SE, SNH)
Acknowledge the importance of upland heathland in country, regional or other forestry strategies. (ACTION: FC, LAs, SE)
Develop by 2005 regional strategies to reduce red deer numbers in Scotland to levels where upland heathland is maintained in favourable condition. (ACTION: DCS, SE, SNH)
Site safeguard and management
Review by 2005 the extent of SSSI/ASSI coverage and notify further sites as necessary to fill significant gaps. (ACTION: CCW, EHS, NE, SNH)
Prepare and implement management plans for all SSSI's/ASSIs and Natura 2000 areas by 2004. (ACTION: CCW, EHS, NE, SNH)
Review the effectiveness of the SSSI/ASSI network in delivering favourable management for this habitat by 2004. (ACTION: CCW, EHS, NE, SNH)
Promote the uptake of positive management with owners and occupiers of SSSIs/ASSIs and of other land of nature conservation interest, particularly those areas in public ownership or management. (ACTION: CCW, EHS, NE, SNH)
By 2004 designate the upland heath areas approved by the EC as SACs under the Habitats Directive, and classify appropriate areas as SPAs under the EC Birds Directive. (ACTION: CCW, DETR, EHS, NE, JNCC, NAW, SE, SNH)
Develop by 2002 proposals for enhancing biodiversity by encouraging and managing moorland mosaics, incorporating upland heathland, marginal hillground, woodland and scrub and other farmed land. (ACTION: CCW, DANI, EHS, NE, FC, MAFF, NAW, SE, SNH)
Contribute to the implementation of relevant action plans for rare and declining species associated with upland heathland in conjunction with the appropriate species steering groups. (ACTION: CCW, DANI, EHS, NE, FC, MAFF, NAW, SE, SNH)
Advisory
Consider encouraging the use and establishment of public and private demonstration sites, with special linkage to agri-environment schemes, to develop and exhibit best-practice management techniques. (ACTION: CCW, DANI, EHS, NE, FC, LAs, MAFF, NAW, NPAs, SE, SNH)
Provide advice and information on land management through the production, promotion and dissemination of literature, including technical handbooks and leaflets, and use of IT. (ACTION: CCW, DANI, EHS, NE, LAs, MAFF, NAW, NPAs, SE, SNH)
Provide training, where appropriate, for those organisations/individuals involved in the delivery of advice to farmers and land managers on the environmental land management objectives and opportunities offered through agri-environmental and integrated rural schemes. (ACTION: CCW, DANI, EHS, NE, LAs, MAFF, NAW, NPAs, SAC, SE, SNH)
Encourage applications from potential partners to obtain funding to bring areas of upland heathland into favourable management. (ACTION: CCW, NE, EHS, SNH)
International
Continue to influence the EU to review livestock support mechanisms and to make greater use of European funding (see 5.1.1). (ACTION: CCW, DANI, DETR, EHS, NE, MAFF, JNCC, NAW, SE, SNH)
Participate in initiatives, such as EU Biodiversity and Forestry strategies, to develop and strengthen measures for the conservation of upland heathland in Europe. (ACTION: CCW, DETR, EHS, NE, JNCC, NAW, SE, SNH)
Promote the international significance of the UK’s upland heathland resource. (ACTION: CCW, EHS, NE, JNCC, SNH)
Research and monitoring
Develop national inventories, with agreed definitions, to determine the extent, distribution and composition of upland heathland by the year 2004. Make this information available through a World Wide Web based catalogue of survey information. (ACTION: CCW, DANI, EHS, NE, JNCC, MAFF, NAW, SE, SNH)
Develop agreed definitions and methods by 2000 for describing and assessing the condition of upland heathland, and complete condition assessments for all SSSIs/ASSIs by the year 2006. (ACTION: CCW, EHS, NE, JNCC, MAFF, SNH)
By 2004 undertake a sample survey (covering 5-10% of the resource) using standardised and repeatable methodology of vegetation condition of upland heath throughout the UK and consider the need for repeat surveys as part of a monitoring programme. (ACTION: CCW, EHS, NE, JNCC, SNH)
Continue to support applied research to develop methods for the enhancement, restoration and re-creation of upland heath and populations of associated characteristic species through practical management. (ACTION: CCW, DANI, EHS, NE, FC, JNCC, MAFF, SE, SNH)
Compile by 2002 an inventory of priority sites for upland heathland restoration and expansion, including grasslands containing suppressed dwarf shrubs and potential areas of heathland within forests (particularly areas known to have lost heather cover in the last 50 years). (ACTION: CCW, EHS, NE, FC, SNH)
Commission and undertake research on the environmental impacts of reducing or removing burning (especially wet heath) and grazing management from upland heath to allow vegetation succession. (ACTION: CCW,NE EHS, NE, HS, JNCC, MAFF, SNH)
Review research requirements on the effects of air pollution and climate change on upland heathland and promote research needs accordingly. (ACTION: CCW, DANI, DETR, EHS, NE, JNCC, MAFF, NAW, SNH)
Continue to promote research to explore the most effective ways of integrating agriculture, other rural economies and social needs, and recreation with nature conservation objectives. (ACTION:NE CCW, DANI, DoE(NI), DETR, EHS, NE, FC, JNCC, LAs, MAFF, NAW, NPAs, SNH)
Develop and implement appropriate surveillance and monitoring programmes to assess progress towards action plan targets. (ACTION: CCW, DANI, EHS, NE, JNCC, MAFF, NAW, SE, SNH)
Communications and publicity
Promote conservation of upland heathland through the scientific press and popular media, particularly targeted at landowners and managers, rural communities, and visitors to upland heathland areas. (ACTION: CCW, EHS, NE, SNH)
Encourage appropriate public access for observation and enjoyment of upland heathland. (ACTION: CCW,NE DANI, DETR, EHS, NE, MAFF, NAW, SE, SNH)
Key references
Backshall, J., Manley, J. & Rebane, M. (Eds). 1999. The Upland Management Handbook. English Nature, Peterborough.
Bardgett, R.D., Marsden, J.H., & Howard, D.C. 1995. The extent and condition of heather on moorland in the uplands of England and Wales. Biological Conservation, 71 , 155-161
Cooper, A. & McCann, T. 1995. The botanical composition of upland heath and mire land cover types in Northern Ireland. Contract report to Environment and Heritage Service, DoE(NI), Belfast.
Cooper, A., Murray, R. & McCann, T. 1997. Northern Ireland Countryside Survey. Environment and Heritage Service, DoE(NI), Belfast.
Department of the Environment, Transport and the Regions. 1998. Good Practice Guide on managing the use of Common Land. DETR, London.
Felton, M. & Marsden, J.H. 1990. Heather regeneration in England and Wales. A feasibility study for the Department of the Environment. Nature Conservancy Council, Peterborough.
Hester, A. 1996. Overgrazing in upland habitats: a literature review. CCW contract science report No.152. Countryside Council for Wales, Bangor.
Huntings Surveys. 1986. Monitoring landscape change. Vol. 1. Main report. Huntings Surveys, Borehamwood.
Macaulay Land Use Research Institute. 1988. Land Cover of Scotland. Final Report & Executive Summary. MLURI, Aberdeen.
MacDonald, A., Stevens, P., Armstrong, H., Immirzi, P. & Reynolds, P. 1998. A guide to upland habitats: surveying land management impacts. Scottish Natural Heritage, Battleby.
Mackey, E., Shewry, M.C. & Tudor, G.J. 1998. Land Cover Change: Scotland from the 1940s to 1980s. The Stationery Office, Edinburgh.
Moorland Working Group. 1998. Good practice for grouse moor management. Scottish Natural Heritage, Battleby.
Murray, R., McCann, T. & Cooper, A. 1992. A land classification and landscape ecological study of Northern Ireland. Contract report to Environment and Heritage Service, DoE(NI), Belfast.
Scottish Natural Heritage. 1994. National Countryside Monitoring Scheme Scotland: Main report of findings. Scottish Natural Heritage, Battleby.
Scottish Natural Heritage. 1993. A Muirburn Code. Scottish Natural Heritage, Battleby.
Stevenson, A.C & Thompson, D.B.A. (1993). Long-term changes in the extent of heather moorland in upland Britain and Ireland: palaeoecological evidence for the importance of grazing. The Holocene, 3 (1), 70-76.
Thompson, D.B.A., MacDonald, A.J., Marsden, J.H., & Galbraith, C.A. 1995. Upland heather moorland in Great Britain: a review of international importance, vegetation change and some objectives for nature conservation. Biological Conservation, 71 , 163-178.
Thompson, D.B.A., Hester, A.J., Usher, M.B. (Eds.). 1995. Heaths and moorland: cultural landscapes. HMSO, Edinburgh.
UK Biodiversity Steering Group. 1995. Biodiversity: The UK Steering Group Report. Vol. 2: Action Plans. HMSO, London.